Analysis · Germany

The question of what to do with the site's surplus solar becomes the trigger for electrifying a warehouse’s truck fleet

The question of what to do with the site's surplus solar becomes the trigger for electrifying a warehouse’s truck fleet

By Toby D. Couture and Matthijs van de Wiel

October 2026

By Toby D. Couture and Matthijs van de Wiel

October 2026

The question

The question

The question

Faced with rising diesel prices and decreasing payments for surplus power from its 1MWp onsite solar project, can a German logistics warehouse cut its energy costs by using more of its rooftop solar on site? And which options make the most sense financially, given high upfront Capex requirements?

The case study

The case study

The warehouse is modeled on a real logistics site in North Rhine-Westphalia. The analysis compares six ways to increase the site's self-consumption, and ranks them in terms of the total contribution they make, their upfront cost, as well as the cost savings they unlock elsewhere (e.g. for switching from diesel trucks to electric models).

Key findings

Key findings

Key findings

  • The warehouse currently uses only 29% of what its roof produces and exports the rest. It pays about 18.7 cents per kWh for grid power but earns about 4.3 cents per kWh it exports, which leaves up to €100k a year on the table.

  • Electrifying the truck fleet emerges as the option with the best business case: however, switching to electric trucks represents a major capital investment in its own right, and should not be made simply to increase solar self-consumption.

  • Two factors make the switch to electric trucks particularly attractive:

    • First, diesel for the eight trucks costs about €252k a year, almost six times the power bill. Charging electric trucks from the roof using daytime power output from the solar array cuts that energy cost by about 77%, and lifts self-consumption from 29% to 50%. It also shields the truck fleet from swings in diesel price, and future fuel price inflation.

    • Second, Germany has exempted electric trucks from road tolls until mid-2031, providing an additional incentive to make the switch. This represents an annual saving of about €35k per truck on tolls alone for a truck that drives 100,000 km per year on toll roads. In order to be conservative, this analysis assumes the trucks in this case drive about 51,000 km a year (versus the 2025 average of 67,500 km for German tractor units), which saves €9–15k per truck, or €71–121k for the fleet of eight trucks.

  • The investment of about €2.6 million for eight trucks and four chargers comes to about €2.24 million once the existing five-year-old diesel trucks are sold for about €0.36 million. In our central scenario that pays back in about 9 years: €294k a year for the 4.5 toll-free years from early 2027 to mid-2031 (€194k on energy plus €100k on tolls, with 70% of the mileage on toll roads), then €194k a year. Across the ranges for truck and charger prices and the share of mileage on toll roads, the payback runs from 7.6 to 10.6 years.

  • A battery is a useful extra rather than part of the core case: a 0.5 MWh unit (€195–338k) would lift self-consumption from 50% to 64% and save about €20k a year more, and could also help cut the site’s peak demand. Sizing a battery and deciding how to run it needs its own analysis.

  • There are several upsides to making the switch: the facility’s fleet no longer relies on diesel, the trucks are spared from having to pay costly road tolls (at least until 2031), and a greater share of the facility’s onsite solar output can be put to use, rather than exported to the grid.

  • To take the next step, the facility has two routes: a bank loan, with the proceeds from the old trucks as equity, or a lease, where a leasing company owns the trucks and the facility pays a monthly rate with little or no cash upfront. If structured well, this project has an attractive payback and leaves the facility with lower operating costs, fewer fees, a smaller environmental footprint, and greater resilience in the face of future energy shocks.

In Germany, the warehouse pays 18.7 cents for power and earns 4.3 cents for its exports

In Germany, the warehouse pays 18.7 cents for power and earns 4.3 cents for its exports

In Germany, the warehouse pays 18.7 cents for power and earns 4.3 cents for its exports

A logistics firm pays about 18.7 cents per kWh for grid power before VAT, once grid charges and the electricity tax are included (3, 4). A kWh the roof exports earned 4.3 cents on average at 2025 market prices. The owner earns nothing in the hours when the price was negative, which was the case for 29% of this roof’s exports (1). Each exported kWh is therefore worth about 14 cents less than one used on site. Across the 692 MWh the roof exports each year, that represents up to €100k a year in foregone savings.

Exports are set to earn even less in the coming years (Table 1). Two draft laws, the 2027 amendment to the Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG) and the Grid Package (Netzpaket) on grid expansion and connections, would let grid operators curtail new plants in congested areas without payment, and would make larger new systems pay revenue back when prices are high (6, 7). The EEG market premium, a top-up on market sales that a roof connected in late 2026 could still claim, would only lift exports to about 5.3 cents (35).

The prospect of a further erosion in the revenues for exported solar provided the catalyst for this facility owner to start looking at its options: could the logistics warehouse use more of its own solar, and if so, how much would it cost to do so?

A logistics firm pays about 18.7 cents per kWh for grid power before VAT, once grid charges and the electricity tax are included (3, 4). A kWh the roof exports earned 4.3 cents on average at 2025 market prices. The owner earns nothing in the hours when the price was negative, which was the case for 29% of this roof’s exports (1). Each exported kWh is therefore worth about 14 cents less than one used on site. Across the 692 MWh the roof exports each year, that represents up to €100k a year in foregone savings.

Exports are set to earn even less in the coming years (Table 1). Two draft laws, the 2027 amendment to the Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG) and the Grid Package (Netzpaket) on grid expansion and connections, would let grid operators curtail new plants in congested areas without payment, and would make larger new systems pay revenue back when prices are high (6, 7). The EEG market premium, a top-up on market sales that a roof connected in late 2026 could still claim, would only lift exports to about 5.3 cents (35).

The prospect of a further erosion in the revenues for exported solar provided the catalyst for this facility owner to start looking at its options: could the logistics warehouse use more of its own solar, and if so, how much would it cost to do so?

Table 1. Why self-consumption beats exporting power to the grid for a roof connected after February 2025

Driver

Figure

Source

Hours with negative day-ahead prices, 2025

578 hours, 95% of them in daylight hours

(1)

Average value of solar output vs average market prices across all hours, 2025

€50 vs €89 per MWh

(1)

Payment in negative quarter-hours, plants ≥100 kW from 25 Feb 2025

None; lost time is added at the end of the support period at half weight

(2)

This roof’s exports at 2025 market prices

4.3 ct/kWh, nothing in negative-price hours

Model, (1)

Grid power for a logistics firm, 2026

About 18.7 ct/kWh before VAT: the industry average of 16.7 ct plus the full electricity tax that non-manufacturers pay

(3, 4)

Grid connection requests waiting nationwide, for generation, storage and large consumers

More than 700 GW, many of them speculative

(5)

Unpaid curtailment in congested areas (draft, July 2026)

Up to 20% of output

(6)

New systems above 100 kW (EEG 2027 draft)

Two-way contracts that require system owners to pay revenue back when prices are high

(7)

The current roof produces almost twice what the warehouse uses

The current roof produces almost twice what the warehouse uses

The current roof produces almost twice what the warehouse uses

The warehouse is based on a real 23,700 m² logistics site in North Rhine-Westphalia with 1,000 kWp of solar on the roof (8). Demand follows the federal benchmark for warehouse buildings of 21.6 kWh per m² per year (9), with a load curve modeled on a comparable German logistics site (10). Weather and prices are actual 2025 data (1, 11).

The warehouse uses 29% of what the roof produces and exports the rest, 692 MWh a year (Table 2). In summer the roof produces 6 times as much as on a December day, while demand stays fairly flat because the building is heated with gas (Figure 1). Other owner-run logistics warehouses in Germany show the same pattern: one exports up to 90% of its output (12), and another exported 40–50% before adding storage, load management and electric trucks (13, 14).

The warehouse is based on a real 23,700 m² logistics site in North Rhine-Westphalia with 1,000 kWp of solar on the roof (8). Demand follows the federal benchmark for warehouse buildings of 21.6 kWh per m² per year (9), with a load curve modeled on a comparable German logistics site (10). Weather and prices are actual 2025 data (1, 11).

The warehouse uses 29% of what the roof produces and exports the rest, 692 MWh a year (Table 2). In summer the roof produces 6 times as much as on a December day, while demand stays fairly flat because the building is heated with gas (Figure 1). Other owner-run logistics warehouses in Germany show the same pattern: one exports up to 90% of its output (12), and another exported 40–50% before adding storage, load management and electric trucks (13, 14).

Table 2. Key project parameters

Value

Floor area

23,700 m²

Roof output

974 MWh a year (974 kWh/kWp)

Warehouse demand

512 MWh a year

Self-consumed

282 MWh, 28.9% of output

Exported

692 MWh a year

Average day: output / exported

2.7 / 1.9 MWh

June day: output / self-consumed

4.8 / 1.0 MWh

December day: output / self-consumed

0.8 / 0.5 MWh

Power bill: 230 MWh from the grid, all charges and taxes, before VAT

About €43k a year

Power bill without the roof

About €96k a year

Figure 1. The facility's output on an average summer day vs an average winter day differs widely

Source: E3Applied model, averages over 2025 working days. Weather (11); demand (9, 10). Note: the warehouse is currently heated with gas, and lighting loads are minimal due to efficient lighting, which means that winter demand is only marginally higher than during the summer.

Six ways to use more of the roof’s output, weighed against their cost

Six ways to use more of the roof’s output, weighed against their cost

Six ways to use more of the roof’s output, weighed against their cost

There are three ways for the site to use more of its own onsite solar generation:

  1. shift existing demand into the sunny hours,

  2. add new demand such as truck or car charging, or

  3. store the surplus in a battery or as heat for later.

Table 3 summarises the main options, while Figure 2 below provides a snapshot of the total boost to self-consumption compared to the estimated Capex of each option. Figure 3 then shows the result for every variant we tested.

There are three ways for the site to use more of its own onsite solar generation:

  1. shift existing demand into the sunny hours,

  2. add new demand such as truck or car charging, or

  3. store the surplus in a battery or as heat for later.

Table 3 summarises the main options, while Figure 2 below provides a snapshot of the total boost to self-consumption compared to the estimated Capex of each option. Figure 3 then shows the result for every variant we tested.

Table 3. Summary of the main options

Option

Extra self-consumption, MWh/yr

Upfront cost (Capex)

Value of self-consumption,

in €/year + fuel savings

Factors that influence actual usage

8 e-trucks, charging spread 13:00–17:00

205

€2.4–2.7m, 8 trucks + four shared chargers

€30k + €164k diesel

Shift pattern; actual charging time and duration

Battery, 0.5 MWh

126

€195–338k

€18k

Evening and nighttime demand

Battery, 1 MWh

151

€250–500k

€22k

Evening and nighttime demand

Staff e-cars, all drivers electric

77–130

€187–975k

€11–19k

Headcount; shifts; EV uptake

Heat pump with slab heating

106

€901k–2.4m

€15k + c. €41k gas

Only feasible in a new build

Heat pump with 50 m³ tank

60

€362k–1.3m

€9k + c. €41k gas

Water-based heating

Shift 10–30% of the warehouse’s grid-supplied load

20–57

Hard to price; depends on site

€3–8k

Analysing which loads can move, and when

Heat pump alone

35

€295k–1.2m

€5k + c. €41k gas

Heat demand; replaces gas

Value: extra self-consumption × 14.4 ct/kWh, the grid price avoided (18.7 ct) minus the export price given up (4.3 ct). Diesel: fuel cost avoided minus the trucks’ power at the grid price (Table 4). Gas: rough estimate, 1,066 MWh of heat from a 90% efficient boiler at 8.6 ct/kWh, minus the heat pump’s power at the grid price; each 1 ct/kWh increase in natural gas prices increases the facility's annual gas bill by about €12k (37).

Figure 2. Extra self-consumption against upfront cost, by option

Source: E3Applied model; costs as in Table 3, drawn at the middle of each range. Circle areas are relative to the largest option on each measure: 205 MWh a year and €2.6m, both electric trucks. Where the orange cost circle is the larger one, the option costs more, relative to the others, than the solar it puts to use. Truck costs are the full price of eight electric trucks plus four shared chargers (€65–86k each); the trucks pay for themselves mainly through diesel and toll savings (Table 4). Load shifting is not priced, as its cost depends on the site.

Figure 3. Extra self-consumption, by option

Source: E3Applied model. Each option is run on its own; the results are not additive, because every option draws on the same midday surplus.

On solar alone, most options deliver relatively little extra self-consumption but come with a relatively high Capex cost.

  • A heat pump, with or without a hot-water tank, costs €0.3–1.3 million and puts 35–60 MWh a year more of the roof’s output to use, worth €5–9k a year.

  • Staff charging adds 77–130 MWh a year even if every driver goes electric, but costs an estimated €1,700–5,000 per charging point (32, 33). It only earns money back if drivers pay for the power; otherwise it is best understood as a relatively expensive employee perk. The middle way on staff charging would be to provide a limited number of chargers (e.g. 8-10), retaining the perk but limiting the upfront Capex of building so many onsite chargers.

  • A heat pump saves about €41k a year on gas after paying for its own power (37), but draws 78% of its power between November and February, when solar output is at its lowest. Heat storage helps, but the extra cost makes it difficult to justify simply to soak up the site's surplus solar (28). The reduction in gas expenditures represents the more important saving, but this needs to be compared in relation to the upfront cost of adding a heat pump onto an existing facility, particularly one of this size.

  • Moving forklift charging and ventilation into the middle of the day helps, but only adds approximately 20–57 MWh a year, depending on operating assumptions.

On solar alone, most options deliver relatively little extra self-consumption but come with a relatively high Capex cost.

  • A heat pump, with or without a hot-water tank, costs €0.3–1.3 million and puts 35–60 MWh a year more of the roof’s output to use, worth €5–9k a year.

  • Staff charging adds 77–130 MWh a year even if every driver goes electric, but costs an estimated €1,700–5,000 per charging point (32, 33). It only earns money back if drivers pay for the power; otherwise it is best understood as a relatively expensive employee perk. The middle way on staff charging would be to provide a limited number of chargers (e.g. 8-10), retaining the perk but limiting the upfront Capex of building so many onsite chargers.

  • A heat pump saves about €41k a year on gas after paying for its own power (37), but draws 78% of its power between November and February, when solar output is at its lowest. Heat storage helps, but the extra cost makes it difficult to justify simply to soak up the site's surplus solar (28). The reduction in gas expenditures represents the more important saving, but this needs to be compared in relation to the upfront cost of adding a heat pump onto an existing facility, particularly one of this size.

  • Moving forklift charging and ventilation into the middle of the day helps, but only adds approximately 20–57 MWh a year, depending on operating assumptions.

A battery soaks up the midday surplus

A battery soaks up the midday surplus

A battery soaks up the midday surplus

Adding a battery into the equation generates a number of additional benefits that the other options do not: a 0.5 MWh battery stores midday solar for later in the day and adds 126 MWh a year of self-consumption, worth about €18k, against €195–338k upfront (22, 23). It also enables the facility as a whole to be more self-sufficient, providing more of its own needs overall. Alongside the electric trucks, it puts a further 141 MWh a year of solar to use, lifting self-consumption from 50% to 64% and saving about €20k a year more. A battery can also help the site reduce its grid charges, which are based on peak onsite demand, buffer days when the trucks return late, or trade on power prices. This analysis does not model those functions, so sizing a battery and deciding how to run it needs its own study; the core case below leaves it out.

Adding a battery into the equation generates a number of additional benefits that the other options do not: a 0.5 MWh battery stores midday solar for later in the day and adds 126 MWh a year of self-consumption, worth about €18k, against €195–338k upfront (22, 23). It also enables the facility as a whole to be more self-sufficient, providing more of its own needs overall. Alongside the electric trucks, it puts a further 141 MWh a year of solar to use, lifting self-consumption from 50% to 64% and saving about €20k a year more. A battery can also help the site reduce its grid charges, which are based on peak onsite demand, buffer days when the trucks return late, or trade on power prices. This analysis does not model those functions, so sizing a battery and deciding how to run it needs its own study; the core case below leaves it out.

Across the whole facility, the trucks represent the largest opportunity; but adding trucks has the highest Capex

Across the whole facility, the trucks represent the largest opportunity; but adding trucks has the highest Capex

Across the whole facility, the trucks represent the largest opportunity; but adding trucks has the highest Capex

We then looked at the warehouse on a "whole facility" basis, considering all of its energy costs including electricity, gas, and the diesel used to run its trucks.

Purely from an economic perspective, increasing the site's ability to use more of its onsite solar output rarely justifies spending hundreds of thousands of euros in new Capex. The spending, however, can make sense when the onsite power is used to replace a more expensive fuel, such as diesel. The eight trucks burn about €252k of diesel a year, almost six times the warehouse’s power bill of €43k (Tables 2 and 4). At the same time, recent geopolitical instability has caused diesel prices to surge, making it a logical place to look to reduce the owner's exposure to further price increases in the future.

We then looked at the warehouse on a "whole facility" basis, considering all of its energy costs including electricity, gas, and the diesel used to run its trucks.

Purely from an economic perspective, increasing the site's ability to use more of its onsite solar output rarely justifies spending hundreds of thousands of euros in new Capex. The spending, however, can make sense when the onsite power is used to replace a more expensive fuel, such as diesel. The eight trucks burn about €252k of diesel a year, almost six times the warehouse’s power bill of €43k (Tables 2 and 4). At the same time, recent geopolitical instability has caused diesel prices to surge, making it a logical place to look to reduce the owner's exposure to further price increases in the future.

What the switch to electric trucks saves

What the switch to electric trucks saves

What the switch to electric trucks saves

Eight 40-tonne trucks driving 205 km a day (18) at 1.14 kWh/km (17) need 1.9 MWh a day between them, or 467 MWh over 250 working days. Charged between 13:00 and 17:00, they take 44% of that from the roof, which raises self-consumption by 205 MWh a year, worth nearly €30k at €144/MWh.

As suggested above, the larger saving is fuel: replacing diesel with electricity saves about €164k a year. Adding this to the value captured by using more of the facility’s own onsite solar, the total annual savings amount to an estimated €194k (Table 4). And finally, switching to electric trucks saves the owner between €9k and €15k per truck, or €71–121k a year for all eight, in road tolls until mid-2031, which makes the proposition even more attractive.

Eight 40-tonne trucks driving 205 km a day (18) at 1.14 kWh/km (17) need 1.9 MWh a day between them, or 467 MWh over 250 working days. Charged between 13:00 and 17:00, they take 44% of that from the roof, which raises self-consumption by 205 MWh a year, worth nearly €30k at €144/MWh.

As suggested above, the larger saving is fuel: replacing diesel with electricity saves about €164k a year. Adding this to the value captured by using more of the facility’s own onsite solar, the total annual savings amount to an estimated €194k (Table 4). And finally, switching to electric trucks saves the owner between €9k and €15k per truck, or €71–121k a year for all eight, in road tolls until mid-2031, which makes the proposition even more attractive.

Table 4. What switching eight trucks to electric saves in a year

Amount

Per year

Diesel no longer bought, 30 l/100 km at €2.05/l before VAT

123,000 l

+€252k

Power for the e-trucks, charged 13:00–17:00

467 MWh, 44% from the roof

−€58k

Energy saving

Diesel minus power

€194k

Tolls no longer paid, 8 trucks at 34.8 ct/km, until 30 June 2031

205,000–348,500 km on toll roads

+€71–121k

Total saving until mid-2031

Energy saving plus tolls

€265–315k

Source: E3Applied model; diesel (15, 34); toll (36, 38, 40). Roof power valued at the 4.3 ct/kWh it would have earned as export. The energy saving includes about €30k from using roof power instead of exporting it. All from the grid, the trucks’ power would cost €87k; charging 13:00–17:00 takes 44% of it from the roof. Toll: 34.8 ct/km is the rate for a 40-tonne, five-axle Euro VI diesel truck, or €34,800 a year for a truck that drives 100,000 km on toll roads (38). Each truck in this case drives about 51,250 km a year, a conservative figure: the average German tractor unit drove 67,500 km in 2025 (39). We assume 50–85% of it runs on toll roads; German trucks over 18 t with five or more axles drive close to 90% of their mileage on toll roads, mostly long-haul (40). Excludes maintenance and capacity charges. Capacity charges are highly location-specific: each distribution grid operator sets its own prices, has its own connection queue and offers different options for a larger connection, so they need to be checked with the local operator. Spreading the truck charging over the afternoon keeps the site’s new peak near 565 kW instead of about 1,300 kW, which keeps these charges and the connection upgrade smaller.

There is, of course, a catch: these savings are not for free. Electric trucks cost €265–300k each compared to €120–140k for diesel ones, and four shared chargers add a further €259–344k to the total Capex required to make the switch (20, 21). This represents a total Capex of €2.4–2.7 million; diesel trucks are cheaper to buy, and do not require onsite charging infrastructure. Against that, the switch saves €265–315k a year while the toll exemption lasts, and €194k a year after mid-2031.

There is, of course, a catch: these savings are not for free. Electric trucks cost €265–300k each compared to €120–140k for diesel ones, and four shared chargers add a further €259–344k to the total Capex required to make the switch (20, 21). This represents a total Capex of €2.4–2.7 million; diesel trucks are cheaper to buy, and do not require onsite charging infrastructure. Against that, the switch saves €265–315k a year while the toll exemption lasts, and €194k a year after mid-2031.

How to make truck charging work on site

How to make truck charging work on site

How to make truck charging work on site

We modeled trucks that plug in at 13:00 after their last trip, a pattern seen in real-world data on battery-electric trucks (17), and charge until 17:00. Each truck needs about 234 kWh a day, roughly 1.6 hours on a 150 kW charger, and remains stationary at the logistics hall in the meantime, so routes and delivery slots likely have to be reconfigured to allow for daytime charging.

The schedule does not have to be perfect. What matters most is that the trucks charge predominantly during daytime hours. If they charge half their energy at a midday stop and the rest overnight, self-consumption still rises by 143 MWh a year, 70% of the 205 MWh from only-afternoon charging. Spreading the charging over as many daylight hours as possible matters more than the exact start time.

Spread over four hours, the fleet never draws more than 467 kW, so four 150 kW charging points (rather than eight) are likely enough. At €65–86k per point, four points cost €259–344k instead of €518–689k for one per truck, which shortens the payback in our central scenario from about 11 years to about 9.

Spreading the charging also keeps the grid peak down. Charging all eight trucks at full power from 17:00 would lift the site’s peak from 97 kW today to about 1,300 kW; spread over the afternoon, it stays near 565 kW, which costs less in grid charges and is easier to connect.

If the trucks could only charge from 17:00, a battery would matter more: it would lift the extra self-consumption from 38 to 174 MWh a year and reduce the need to pay the grid price for charging. Even with afternoon charging, the roof cannot cover the trucks on its own, particularly in winter: without a battery the facility buys about twice as much grid power as today, and with a 0.5 MWh battery about 50% more.

In exchange, however, the facility saves €252k/year in diesel expenses, or €194k after paying for the extra grid power, and reduces its road toll expenses by a further €71–121k a year until mid-2031. The toll saving alone pays back the four chargers (€259–344k) in about three years (two to five, depending on charger prices and the share of toll roads). Together, the switch saves €265–315k a year, a significant saving in annual energy costs.

Taken as a whole, the economics of making the switch look increasingly attractive.

We modeled trucks that plug in at 13:00 after their last trip, a pattern seen in real-world data on battery-electric trucks (17), and charge until 17:00. Each truck needs about 234 kWh a day, roughly 1.6 hours on a 150 kW charger, and remains stationary at the logistics hall in the meantime, so routes and delivery slots likely have to be reconfigured to allow for daytime charging.

The schedule does not have to be perfect. What matters most is that the trucks charge predominantly during daytime hours. If they charge half their energy at a midday stop and the rest overnight, self-consumption still rises by 143 MWh a year, 70% of the 205 MWh from only-afternoon charging. Spreading the charging over as many daylight hours as possible matters more than the exact start time.

Spread over four hours, the fleet never draws more than 467 kW, so four 150 kW charging points (rather than eight) are likely enough. At €65–86k per point, four points cost €259–344k instead of €518–689k for one per truck, which shortens the payback in our central scenario from about 11 years to about 9.

Spreading the charging also keeps the grid peak down. Charging all eight trucks at full power from 17:00 would lift the site’s peak from 97 kW today to about 1,300 kW; spread over the afternoon, it stays near 565 kW, which costs less in grid charges and is easier to connect.

If the trucks could only charge from 17:00, a battery would matter more: it would lift the extra self-consumption from 38 to 174 MWh a year and reduce the need to pay the grid price for charging. Even with afternoon charging, the roof cannot cover the trucks on its own, particularly in winter: without a battery the facility buys about twice as much grid power as today, and with a 0.5 MWh battery about 50% more.

In exchange, however, the facility saves €252k/year in diesel expenses, or €194k after paying for the extra grid power, and reduces its road toll expenses by a further €71–121k a year until mid-2031. The toll saving alone pays back the four chargers (€259–344k) in about three years (two to five, depending on charger prices and the share of toll roads). Together, the switch saves €265–315k a year, a significant saving in annual energy costs.

Taken as a whole, the economics of making the switch look increasingly attractive.

Conclusion

Conclusion

The initial catalyst was a discussion around doing more with the site’s onsite power, and mitigating the facility’s exposure to declining feed-in rates for surplus power. After looking at the various options, the analysis reveals that the bigger prize is to be found in transitioning to electric trucks, a switch that saves both diesel costs and expensive road tolls, while enabling the facility to soak up a greater share of its solar output.

For a logistics client at a large facility, this analysis underscores how important it is to take a whole facility perspective.

For this warehouse in Germany, the findings are clear: electrify the trucks and charge them from the roof as much as possible. That lifts self-consumption from 29% to 50% and saves about €194k per year, mostly on diesel.

Avoiding road tolls for the facility’s 8 trucks saves a further €71k to €121k per year, adding a major financial upside.

A battery is a further option rather than part of the core case. A 0.5 MWh unit (€195–338k) would lift self-consumption to 64% and save about €20k a year more. It could also help reduce the facility’s peak demand, smooth out self-consumption and reduce exports to the grid on the sunniest days, but those functions are not modelled here: sizing a battery and deciding how to run it needs its own analysis.

However, the upfront Capex of making the switch remains a major barrier. The eight trucks cost €2.1–2.4 million and four chargers add €259–344k: this represents a total investment on the order of €2.4–2.7 million. In our central scenario the investment is about €2.6 million; selling the existing five-year-old diesel trucks would bring in about €0.36 million (35% of their new price), leaving about €2.24 million to finance.

Counting the exemption from road tolls that extends at least until mid-2031, the simple payback on that €2.24 million is about 9 years in our central scenario: €294k a year for the 4.5 toll-free years from early 2027 to mid-2031 (€194k on energy plus €100k on tolls, with 70% of the mileage on toll roads), then €194k a year. Across the ranges for truck and charger prices and the share of mileage on toll roads, it is 7.6–10.6 years. Any reductions to grid capacity charges, which depend on the local grid operator and tariff category, are excluded from the analysis (see Table 4).

In return for making the switch, the facility’s fleet no longer relies on diesel, the price of which can fluctuate widely, the trucks are spared from having to pay costly road tolls, and a greater share of the facility’s onsite solar output can be used, which significantly increases its overall value.

To take the next step, the facility has two routes: a bank loan, with the proceeds from the old trucks as equity, or a lease, where a leasing company owns the trucks and the facility pays a monthly rate with little or no cash upfront. Either route can also cover the battery. If structured well, this project has an attractive payback and leaves the facility with lower overall energy costs, fewer fees, and greater resilience in the face of future energy shocks.

The initial catalyst was a discussion around doing more with the site’s onsite power, and mitigating the facility’s exposure to declining feed-in rates for surplus power. After looking at the various options, the analysis reveals that the bigger prize is to be found in transitioning to electric trucks, a switch that saves both diesel costs and expensive road tolls, while enabling the facility to soak up a greater share of its solar output.

For a logistics client at a large facility, this analysis underscores how important it is to take a whole facility perspective.

For this warehouse in Germany, the findings are clear: electrify the trucks and charge them from the roof as much as possible. That lifts self-consumption from 29% to 50% and saves about €194k per year, mostly on diesel.

Avoiding road tolls for the facility’s 8 trucks saves a further €71k to €121k per year, adding a major financial upside.

A battery is a further option rather than part of the core case. A 0.5 MWh unit (€195–338k) would lift self-consumption to 64% and save about €20k a year more. It could also help reduce the facility’s peak demand, smooth out self-consumption and reduce exports to the grid on the sunniest days, but those functions are not modelled here: sizing a battery and deciding how to run it needs its own analysis.

However, the upfront Capex of making the switch remains a major barrier. The eight trucks cost €2.1–2.4 million and four chargers add €259–344k: this represents a total investment on the order of €2.4–2.7 million. In our central scenario the investment is about €2.6 million; selling the existing five-year-old diesel trucks would bring in about €0.36 million (35% of their new price), leaving about €2.24 million to finance.

Counting the exemption from road tolls that extends at least until mid-2031, the simple payback on that €2.24 million is about 9 years in our central scenario: €294k a year for the 4.5 toll-free years from early 2027 to mid-2031 (€194k on energy plus €100k on tolls, with 70% of the mileage on toll roads), then €194k a year. Across the ranges for truck and charger prices and the share of mileage on toll roads, it is 7.6–10.6 years. Any reductions to grid capacity charges, which depend on the local grid operator and tariff category, are excluded from the analysis (see Table 4).

In return for making the switch, the facility’s fleet no longer relies on diesel, the price of which can fluctuate widely, the trucks are spared from having to pay costly road tolls, and a greater share of the facility’s onsite solar output can be used, which significantly increases its overall value.

To take the next step, the facility has two routes: a bank loan, with the proceeds from the old trucks as equity, or a lease, where a leasing company owns the trucks and the facility pays a monthly rate with little or no cash upfront. Either route can also cover the battery. If structured well, this project has an attractive payback and leaves the facility with lower overall energy costs, fewer fees, and greater resilience in the face of future energy shocks.

Method and assumptions

The model compares roof output and warehouse demand for each half-hour of 2025. Self-consumption is the smaller of the two in each half-hour, plus what a battery or heat store delivers later; stores charge only from surplus and follow no price signal. The model does not calculate support payments. The simple payback in the conclusion sets the upfront cost of the trucks and four shared chargers, minus what the existing five-year-old diesel trucks sell for (35% of the €130k new price, about €0.36 million for eight), against the annual savings. The central scenario takes the middle e-truck price (€282.5k), the top charger price (€344k) and 70% of the mileage on toll roads: €2.24 million, repaid at €294k a year for the first 4.5 years and €194k a year after mid-2031, which takes 9.2 years. The range of 7.6–10.6 years puts truck prices, charger prices and the toll-road share (50–85%) at their favourable or unfavourable ends at once. It leaves out the battery, interest, capacity charges and the book value of the old trucks. Capacity charges are highly location-specific: each distribution grid operator sets its own prices, has its own connection queue and offers different options for a larger connection, so they need to be checked with the local operator. Values in € a year use 18.7 ct/kWh for grid power and 4.3 ct/kWh for exports.

Table 5. Main assumptions

Input

Value

Source

Warehouse

23,700 m², 21.6 kWh/m² a year

(8, 9, 10)

Roof

1,000 kWp, east-west at 10°, 14% losses

(8, 11)

Battery

2-hour, 90% usable, about 90% round trip; €250–500/kWh installed from 1 MWh, €390–675/kWh below

(22, 23)

Trucks

205 km a day at 1.14 kWh/km, about 51,000 km a year (conservative: the 2025 average for German tractor units was 67,500 km), 150 kW points; +€125–180k per truck; chargers €432–574/kW (€65–86k per 150 kW point; four shared points)

(17, 18, 20, 21, 39)

Diesel

30 l/100 km; €2.05/l before VAT (€2.44 with VAT, 28 Sep 2026)

(15, 34)

Heat

45 kWh/m² useful heat (30–65); seasonal COP 3.25; 0.6–1.2 MW at €500–1,040/kW

(24, 25)

Heat stores

Tank 0.58 MWh, €66.5–105k; slab about 4.7 MWh over 2 K, €30–60/m²

(27, 26)

Staff

170–300 people; 65% drive; 4.1–100% EV; 30 km a day at 0.18 kWh/km; two shifts

(8, 29, 30, 31); our assumptions

Charging points

€1,700–5,000 per point

(32, 33)

Load shifting

10–30% of daily grid-supplied demand moved into the same day’s solar hours

Our assumption

Export value

2025 day-ahead price, nothing in negative-price hours; sensitivity with EEG market premium at 5.90 ct/kWh

(1, 35)

Gas

1,066 MWh of heat from a 90% efficient boiler, about 1,185 MWh of gas; 8.6 ct/kWh before VAT, non-household band I2, second half of 2025

(37); boiler efficiency our assumption

Truck toll

Diesel 34.8 ct/km (over 18 t, 5 axles, Euro VI); 50–85% of each truck’s km on toll roads; electric trucks exempt until 30 June 2031, in service from early 2027

(36, 38, 40); share of km and start date our assumptions

Sources

Sources

Sources

1. Energy-Charts (Fraunhofer ISE), day-ahead prices DE-LU, 2025 (ENTSO-E/SMARD data). https://api.energy-charts.info/

2. Rödl & Partner, review of EEG 2025 and outlook for 2026 (Solarspitzengesetz), 2 Mar 2026. https://www.roedl.com/insights/foerderung-strom-erneuerbare-energien-rueckblick-eeg-2025-erwartungen-2026/

3. BDEW, Strompreisanalyse, 15 Apr 2026. https://www.bdew.de/media/documents/BDEW_Strompreisanalyse_042026.pdf

4. Vattenfall, Stromsteuer explainer for business customers, Dec 2025. https://www.vattenfall.de/geschaeftskunden/ves/magazin/energie/stromsteuer

5. ZfK, grid expansion, permits and the Netzpaket, 15 Sep 2026. https://www.zfk.de/energie/strom/netzausbau-genehmigungen-stromnetz-netzpaket · Scope of the figure: ZfK, Netzanschluss unter Druck, 20 Feb 2026. https://www.zfk.de/energie/netzanschluss-priorisierung-bess-dihk

6. pv magazine, cabinet adopts EEG 2027 and Netzpaket drafts, 29 Jul 2026. https://www.pv-magazine.de/2026/07/29/kabinett-beschliesst-entwuerfe-zu-eeg-2027-und-netzpaket/

7. ADVANT Beiten, EEG 2027 cabinet draft for rooftop PV, 29 Jul 2026. https://www.advant-beiten.com/aktuelles/kabinettsentwurf-eeg-2027-was-anlagenbetreiber-von-pv-dachanlagen-jetzt-wissen-muessen

8. eurotransport, Dachser opens logistics centre in Unna, 16 Mar 2026 (hall size, roof PV, staff). https://www.eurotransport.de/logistik/spedition-und-logistik/dachser-logistikzentrum-unna-nrw-lkw-logistik-netzwerk/

9. BMWi/BMI, Vergleichswerte im Nichtwohngebäudebestand, 15 Apr 2021, category 44. https://www.gebaeudeforum.de/fileadmin/gebaeudeforum/Downloads/Rechtsvorschrift/2021-04-15_Bekanntmachung_Energieverbrauchswerte_NWG.pdf

10. ELMAS dataset, Scientific Data (2023), cluster 2. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10562465

11. Open-Meteo historical weather archive; JRC PVGIS v5.3. https://open-meteo.com/ · https://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvg_tools/en/

12. FIEGE newsroom, 8,000 solar panels in Peine, 9 Nov 2023. https://www.fiege.com/en/newsroom/8000-solar-panels-fiege-instals-pv-system-peine

13. VerkehrsRundschau, Nagel-Group commissions CellCube battery, 8 Jul 2025. https://www.verkehrsrundschau.de/nachrichten/transport-logistik/nagel-group-nimmt-cellcube-batteriespeicher-in-betrieb-3686585

14. VerkehrsRundschau, Nagel-Group uses its solar power on site, 9 Mar 2026. https://www.verkehrsrundschau.de/nachrichten/transport-logistik/durch-speicherloesung-den-solarstrom-effizient-nutzen-3777531

15. fuel-prices.eu, Germany, from the EU Weekly Oil Bulletin (28 Sep 2026 figure). https://www.fuel-prices.eu/Germany/05-10-2026/

16. electrive, toll exemption for e-trucks, 2 Dec 2025. https://www.electrive.net/2025/12/02/gesetzgebung-final-mautbefreiung-fuer-e-lkw-kann-in-kraft-treten/

17. Öko-Institut, ELV-LIVE: real-world data analysis of battery-electric trucks, July 2025. https://www.oeko.de//fileadmin/oekodoc/Real-world-data-analysis-of-battery-electric-trucks.pdf

18. Fraunhofer ISE, depot electrification study for Streck Transport, April 2026. https://synpro-lastprofile.de/files/260226_Streck_Elektrifizierung.pdf

19. Staatsministerium Baden-Württemberg, depot charging demand study, 17 Sep 2024. https://www.baden-wuerttemberg.de/fileadmin/redaktion/m-mvi/intern/Elektromobilitaet_Kampagne/Downloads/240917_Abschlussbericht_Bedarfs-_und_Standortanalyse_2024_Erweiterung_Depotladen_barrierefrei_01.pdf

20. ingenieur.de, review of a T&E battery-truck cost model, 29 Sep 2026. https://www.ingenieur.de/technik/fachbereiche/verkehr/prima-sparen-mit-batt-lkw-kritische-einordnung-einer-modellrechnung/

21. Plötz et al. (2026), World Electric Vehicle Journal 17(8), 386 (megawatt charger costs; applied to 150 kW points by E3Applied). https://www.mdpi.com/2032-6653/17/8/386

22. pv magazine, guest article by Encosa’s CEO, 8 Jun 2026. https://www.pv-magazine.de/2026/06/08/das-investitionsfenster-steht-offen-warum-2026-ein-entscheidendes-jahr-fuer-gewerbespeicher-im-mittelstand-ist/

23. LogicEnergy, commercial storage prices 2026 (vendor, net hardware prices), July 2026. https://www.logicenergy.de/neuigkeiten/stromspeicher-100-kwh-preis-2026

24. Deka Immobilien, energy certificate (Bedarfsausweis), logistics hall Bremen, 28 Jan 2021. https://www.deka-immobilien.de/ecomaXL/files/Bremen_Senator-Blase-Str._13.pdf

25. energiefluss24, hall heating with heat pumps (vendor-adjacent), 16 Aug 2026. €/kW derived by E3Applied. https://www.energiefluss24.de/waermepumpe/hallenheizung-waermepumpe

26. LineMetrics EDM Toolbox, concrete core activation (Austria, offices, citing klimaaktiv 2023). https://edm.linemetrics.com/en/massnahmen/geb-kuehl-004

27. Landwirtschaftskammer Schleswig-Holstein, Pufferspeicher im Gartenbau, 20 Sep 2011 (escalated to today’s prices by E3Applied). https://www.lksh.de/fileadmin/PDFs/Gartenbau/Technikberatung_Gartenbau_Pufferspeicher_im_Gartenbau.pdf

28. Gleiss Lutz, overview of the new Gebäudemodernisierungsgesetz, 21 Aug 2026. https://www.gleisslutz.com/de/know-how/ueberblick-ueber-das-neue-gebaeudemodernisierungsgesetz

29. Destatis, Mikrozensus 2024, reported by ZDFheute. https://www.zdfheute.de/panorama/pendeln-arbeitsplatz-auto-100.html

30. KBA vehicle stock 1 Jan 2026, reported by electrive, 27 Feb 2026. https://www.electrive.net/2026/02/27/endlich-ueber-zwei-millionen-elektroautos-auf-deutschen-strassen/

31. KBA new registrations August 2026, reported by ecomento, 3 Sep 2026. https://ecomento.de/2026/09/03/elektroauto-hybridauto-neuzulassungen-august-2026/

32. Stadtwerke München, charging station packages and prices. https://www.swm.de/elektromobilitaet/private-ladestationen/preise

33. Agora Verkehrswende, charging infrastructure cost table, Feb 2022 (2021 cost basis). https://agora-verkehrswende.de/fileadmin/Projekte/2022/Ladeinfrastruktur/Tab_1/74_Ladeinfrastruktur_Tab-1.pdf

34. trans.info, BGL on diesel prices and truck operating costs, 17 Sep 2026 (30 l/100 km). https://trans.info/de/dieselpreise-bgl-1800-euro-mehrkosten-lkw-503126

35. Bundesnetzagentur, EEG-Förderung und -Fördersätze, values for commissioning 1 Aug–31 Dec 2026. https://www.bundesnetzagentur.de/DE/Fachthemen/ElektrizitaetundGas/ErneuerbareEnergien/EEG_Foerderung/start.html

36. Bundesfernstraßenmautgesetz (BFStrMG), §1(2) no. 7 and Annex 1, as last amended on 15 May 2026 (BGBl. 2026 I Nr. 148); English translation by the Federal Ministry of Transport. https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_bfstrmg/englisch_bfstrmg.html

37. Eurostat, natural gas prices for non-household consumers (nrg_pc_203), Germany, band I2 (1,000–9,999 GJ), second half of 2025, excluding VAT and recoverable taxes. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/nrg_pc_203/default/table?lang=en

38. TIMOCOM, LKW Maut berechnen: mehr als nur Kilometer und Achsen, 16 Sep 2026 (worked example: 100,000 km a year on toll roads). https://www.timocom.de/blog/lkw-maut-berechnen-808668

39. Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt, Verkehr in Kilometern, Inländerfahrleistung 2025, September 2026 (tractor units: 67,479 km a year on average). https://www.kba.de/DE/Statistik/Kraftverkehr/VerkehrKilometer/vk_inlaenderfahrleistung/2025/verkehr_in_kilometern_kurzbericht_pdf.pdf

40. Bundesamt für Logistik und Mobilität (BALM), Mautstatistik, Jahrestabellen 2025 (tables J8 and J8b: tolled km by axle class, weight class and road type). https://www.balm.bund.de/DE/Service/Open-Data/Mautdaten-Tabellenwerk/Tabellenwerk_inhalt.html

1. Energy-Charts (Fraunhofer ISE), day-ahead prices DE-LU, 2025 (ENTSO-E/SMARD data). https://api.energy-charts.info/

2. Rödl & Partner, review of EEG 2025 and outlook for 2026 (Solarspitzengesetz), 2 Mar 2026. https://www.roedl.com/insights/foerderung-strom-erneuerbare-energien-rueckblick-eeg-2025-erwartungen-2026/

3. BDEW, Strompreisanalyse, 15 Apr 2026. https://www.bdew.de/media/documents/BDEW_Strompreisanalyse_042026.pdf

4. Vattenfall, Stromsteuer explainer for business customers, Dec 2025. https://www.vattenfall.de/geschaeftskunden/ves/magazin/energie/stromsteuer

5. ZfK, grid expansion, permits and the Netzpaket, 15 Sep 2026. https://www.zfk.de/energie/strom/netzausbau-genehmigungen-stromnetz-netzpaket · Scope of the figure: ZfK, Netzanschluss unter Druck, 20 Feb 2026. https://www.zfk.de/energie/netzanschluss-priorisierung-bess-dihk

6. pv magazine, cabinet adopts EEG 2027 and Netzpaket drafts, 29 Jul 2026. https://www.pv-magazine.de/2026/07/29/kabinett-beschliesst-entwuerfe-zu-eeg-2027-und-netzpaket/

7. ADVANT Beiten, EEG 2027 cabinet draft for rooftop PV, 29 Jul 2026. https://www.advant-beiten.com/aktuelles/kabinettsentwurf-eeg-2027-was-anlagenbetreiber-von-pv-dachanlagen-jetzt-wissen-muessen

8. eurotransport, Dachser opens logistics centre in Unna, 16 Mar 2026 (hall size, roof PV, staff). https://www.eurotransport.de/logistik/spedition-und-logistik/dachser-logistikzentrum-unna-nrw-lkw-logistik-netzwerk/

9. BMWi/BMI, Vergleichswerte im Nichtwohngebäudebestand, 15 Apr 2021, category 44. https://www.gebaeudeforum.de/fileadmin/gebaeudeforum/Downloads/Rechtsvorschrift/2021-04-15_Bekanntmachung_Energieverbrauchswerte_NWG.pdf

10. ELMAS dataset, Scientific Data (2023), cluster 2. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10562465

11. Open-Meteo historical weather archive; JRC PVGIS v5.3. https://open-meteo.com/ · https://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvg_tools/en/

12. FIEGE newsroom, 8,000 solar panels in Peine, 9 Nov 2023. https://www.fiege.com/en/newsroom/8000-solar-panels-fiege-instals-pv-system-peine

13. VerkehrsRundschau, Nagel-Group commissions CellCube battery, 8 Jul 2025. https://www.verkehrsrundschau.de/nachrichten/transport-logistik/nagel-group-nimmt-cellcube-batteriespeicher-in-betrieb-3686585

14. VerkehrsRundschau, Nagel-Group uses its solar power on site, 9 Mar 2026. https://www.verkehrsrundschau.de/nachrichten/transport-logistik/durch-speicherloesung-den-solarstrom-effizient-nutzen-3777531

15. fuel-prices.eu, Germany, from the EU Weekly Oil Bulletin (28 Sep 2026 figure). https://www.fuel-prices.eu/Germany/05-10-2026/

16. electrive, toll exemption for e-trucks, 2 Dec 2025. https://www.electrive.net/2025/12/02/gesetzgebung-final-mautbefreiung-fuer-e-lkw-kann-in-kraft-treten/

17. Öko-Institut, ELV-LIVE: real-world data analysis of battery-electric trucks, July 2025. https://www.oeko.de//fileadmin/oekodoc/Real-world-data-analysis-of-battery-electric-trucks.pdf

18. Fraunhofer ISE, depot electrification study for Streck Transport, April 2026. https://synpro-lastprofile.de/files/260226_Streck_Elektrifizierung.pdf

19. Staatsministerium Baden-Württemberg, depot charging demand study, 17 Sep 2024. https://www.baden-wuerttemberg.de/fileadmin/redaktion/m-mvi/intern/Elektromobilitaet_Kampagne/Downloads/240917_Abschlussbericht_Bedarfs-_und_Standortanalyse_2024_Erweiterung_Depotladen_barrierefrei_01.pdf

20. ingenieur.de, review of a T&E battery-truck cost model, 29 Sep 2026. https://www.ingenieur.de/technik/fachbereiche/verkehr/prima-sparen-mit-batt-lkw-kritische-einordnung-einer-modellrechnung/

21. Plötz et al. (2026), World Electric Vehicle Journal 17(8), 386 (megawatt charger costs; applied to 150 kW points by E3Applied). https://www.mdpi.com/2032-6653/17/8/386

22. pv magazine, guest article by Encosa’s CEO, 8 Jun 2026. https://www.pv-magazine.de/2026/06/08/das-investitionsfenster-steht-offen-warum-2026-ein-entscheidendes-jahr-fuer-gewerbespeicher-im-mittelstand-ist/

23. LogicEnergy, commercial storage prices 2026 (vendor, net hardware prices), July 2026. https://www.logicenergy.de/neuigkeiten/stromspeicher-100-kwh-preis-2026

24. Deka Immobilien, energy certificate (Bedarfsausweis), logistics hall Bremen, 28 Jan 2021. https://www.deka-immobilien.de/ecomaXL/files/Bremen_Senator-Blase-Str._13.pdf

25. energiefluss24, hall heating with heat pumps (vendor-adjacent), 16 Aug 2026. €/kW derived by E3Applied. https://www.energiefluss24.de/waermepumpe/hallenheizung-waermepumpe

26. LineMetrics EDM Toolbox, concrete core activation (Austria, offices, citing klimaaktiv 2023). https://edm.linemetrics.com/en/massnahmen/geb-kuehl-004

27. Landwirtschaftskammer Schleswig-Holstein, Pufferspeicher im Gartenbau, 20 Sep 2011 (escalated to today’s prices by E3Applied). https://www.lksh.de/fileadmin/PDFs/Gartenbau/Technikberatung_Gartenbau_Pufferspeicher_im_Gartenbau.pdf

28. Gleiss Lutz, overview of the new Gebäudemodernisierungsgesetz, 21 Aug 2026. https://www.gleisslutz.com/de/know-how/ueberblick-ueber-das-neue-gebaeudemodernisierungsgesetz

29. Destatis, Mikrozensus 2024, reported by ZDFheute. https://www.zdfheute.de/panorama/pendeln-arbeitsplatz-auto-100.html

30. KBA vehicle stock 1 Jan 2026, reported by electrive, 27 Feb 2026. https://www.electrive.net/2026/02/27/endlich-ueber-zwei-millionen-elektroautos-auf-deutschen-strassen/

31. KBA new registrations August 2026, reported by ecomento, 3 Sep 2026. https://ecomento.de/2026/09/03/elektroauto-hybridauto-neuzulassungen-august-2026/

32. Stadtwerke München, charging station packages and prices. https://www.swm.de/elektromobilitaet/private-ladestationen/preise

33. Agora Verkehrswende, charging infrastructure cost table, Feb 2022 (2021 cost basis). https://agora-verkehrswende.de/fileadmin/Projekte/2022/Ladeinfrastruktur/Tab_1/74_Ladeinfrastruktur_Tab-1.pdf

34. trans.info, BGL on diesel prices and truck operating costs, 17 Sep 2026 (30 l/100 km). https://trans.info/de/dieselpreise-bgl-1800-euro-mehrkosten-lkw-503126

35. Bundesnetzagentur, EEG-Förderung und -Fördersätze, values for commissioning 1 Aug–31 Dec 2026. https://www.bundesnetzagentur.de/DE/Fachthemen/ElektrizitaetundGas/ErneuerbareEnergien/EEG_Foerderung/start.html

36. Bundesfernstraßenmautgesetz (BFStrMG), §1(2) no. 7 and Annex 1, as last amended on 15 May 2026 (BGBl. 2026 I Nr. 148); English translation by the Federal Ministry of Transport. https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_bfstrmg/englisch_bfstrmg.html

37. Eurostat, natural gas prices for non-household consumers (nrg_pc_203), Germany, band I2 (1,000–9,999 GJ), second half of 2025, excluding VAT and recoverable taxes. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/nrg_pc_203/default/table?lang=en

38. TIMOCOM, LKW Maut berechnen: mehr als nur Kilometer und Achsen, 16 Sep 2026 (worked example: 100,000 km a year on toll roads). https://www.timocom.de/blog/lkw-maut-berechnen-808668

39. Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt, Verkehr in Kilometern, Inländerfahrleistung 2025, September 2026 (tractor units: 67,479 km a year on average). https://www.kba.de/DE/Statistik/Kraftverkehr/VerkehrKilometer/vk_inlaenderfahrleistung/2025/verkehr_in_kilometern_kurzbericht_pdf.pdf

40. Bundesamt für Logistik und Mobilität (BALM), Mautstatistik, Jahrestabellen 2025 (tables J8 and J8b: tolled km by axle class, weight class and road type). https://www.balm.bund.de/DE/Service/Open-Data/Mautdaten-Tabellenwerk/Tabellenwerk_inhalt.html